Antecedents of Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira, is not the founder of Jainism, but a reformer of Jainism. Through self example and his life time teachings, he revived the religion and made it popular in ancient India. He is regarded by Jains as the 24th Thirthankara, or Prophet of Jainism. Legend records that Rishabhadeva was the first Thirthankara and founder of Jainism. Rishabhadeva must have lived atleast 30-40 generations before Mahavira, probably around 1500 BC or even earlier.

Parsvanatha, the 23rd Thirthankara, lived some 200-250 years before Mahavira and gave his followers a definite identity as a distinct sect of dedicated ascetics. Before he renounced his princely life and became a monk, Vardhamana seems to have derived inspiration from this sect.

After Mahavira attained liberation and established the Order, most of the followers of Parsvanatha joined him . We have reasons to believe that this group was responsible for sowing the seeds of dissention among the members and the subsequent schism in the Order.

Historically, there is little doubt that Jainism existed before Mahavira. The Yajurveda mentions the names of three Thirthankaras, namely Rishabha, Ajithanatha, and Aristanemi. The Bhagavatha Purana acknowledges Rishabhadeva as the founder of Jainism. The Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Niggantha Nathaputta.

Jainism did not arise as some kind of a reaction of the princely classes against the Brahmanical society or as a revolt against Brahmanism. It existed for long on the Indian soil as a distinct sect, with a set of beliefs and philosophy of its own.

Jainism Vs Hinduism

Some how unlike Buddhism, Jainism never drew itself into some kind of confrontation with Hinduism or Brahmanism, though both religions differed fundamentally on almost every issue, from God to the concept of matter and karma.

It also did not undergo any major change over time, nor its followers ever compromised with Hinduism or any other religion the way Mahayana Buddhists did in the post Gupta period. The followers of Hinduism on their side remained somewhat indifferent to Jainism, as they probably did not perceive any serious threat or competition from the latter.

The followers of Hinduism acknowledged the Buddha as a reincarnation of Lord Vishnu, but largely ignored Vardhamana Mahavira. Besides there wasn't much in Jainism that could attract the attention of the masses as Buddhism had. Jainism offered no instant solace to the masses, unless they were willing to lead very austere and disciplined lives, which was not an easy task even for the strong willed.

Mahavira

Vardhamana was born in a Kshatriya family of Jnatrikas, that ruled a small principality in the erstwhile Magadha and present day north Bihar. According to some sources he was born in 599 BC, some 32 years before the birth of the Buddha (567 BC), while others hold that he was born some 60 years later in 539 B.C. We take the former view into consideration for the purpose of this article.

His father's name was Siddhartha, who was the head of a ruling clan of Jnatrikas and his mother's name was Trishala, who originally hailed from the Lichchavis of Magadha. We have reasons to believe that Vardhamana grew up in the comforts of his princely house in his early days and under the care of his parents. He also had an elder brother named Nandivardhana, who succeeded his father as the chief.

From the beginning Vardhamana was not inclined to lead a mundane life, as he seemed to have developed a spiritual bent of mind from an early age and refused to draw himself into the affairs of the state. At the age of 28 or 30, with the consent of his family, he left his house in search of salvation. For about 12 years he wandered from place to place leading a life of severe austerities and spending his time mostly in remote forests and hilly regions often inhabited by dangerous tribes.

After the first year, as a mark of utmost detachment and selflessness, he decided to discard wearing clothes and remain naked for the rest of his life. Finally at the age of 40 or 42 he attained the exalted position of Jina (the conqueror) or Kevalin (the completed soul).

He spent the next thirty years of his life, spreading his message to interested seekers and organizing an Order of naked ascetics who would remain committed to his path and help preserve his teachings for posterity. He also converted some of the royal family members, especially from his mothers side to his teachings, and received patronage from some of them. He died in 527 B.C. at the ripe age of 72, at a place called Pava, which is now located near the present day Patna. It is now considered as the most sacred pilgrim center by Jains.

Vardhamana Mahavira is one of the greatest sons of ancient India who was equal to the Buddha in stature and greatness, though lesser known in the outside world. India owes a great deal to this noble soul who influenced the attitude and thinking of Indians of subsequent generations, especially in the area of non violence, austerities, good conduct and vegetarianism. Hinduism was not unfamiliar with these ideals, but the presence of Jainism helped in the reinforcement of these ideals and in making them an integral part of the way of life in India.

Buddhism Vs Jainism

Mahavira was a senior contemporary of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. The Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as an enlightened being. However there seems to be no personal contact or communication between the two when they were alive.

Interestingly, no rivalry seemed to have existed between Buddhism and Jainism in the early days of Buddhism, definitely not so much as the rivalry between them and the Ajivakas sect, with whom the Buddha himself often indulged in prolonged debates and discussions. However the very fact that the Buddha denounced extreme asceticism as the means to salvation suggests that there was no scope for any reconciliation between the two.

Both Buddhism and Jainism deny the existence of God or the First Cause which is responsible for the entire creation. But both acknowledge the presence of gods, who are higher than human beings in status but subject to change and evolution and also plane of higher beings, called Jinas or Kevalins by Jains and Bodhisattvas by Buddhists. The Bodhisattvas take interest in the welfare of the world and work for its liberation, but the Kevalins are rather indifferent to our prayers and problems and remain unaffected.

They also differ on the question of the status and evolution of individual beings. According to Jainism, after liberation, the Jiva or soul continues to remain as an individual soul, but in the highest state of purity and enlightenment. According to Buddhism, there is no soul but the individuality or character of an individual which after nirvana passes into some kind of indescribable nothingness that cannot be speculated upon.

The followers of Jainism acknowledge the presence of soul in every animate and inanimate object of the universe, including the elements of the universe, such as the earth, the water, wind, fire and air. Buddhists on the other hand believe that some vague kind of individuality do exist in the plants and animals, but they do not find any such individuality in the inanimate things. The concept of a world filled with innumerable individual souls or clusters of souls, or souls lying hidden in the rocks and mountains, the rivers and lakes, the stars and planets is simply untenable in Buddhism.

Both Buddhism and Jainism acknowledge the universality of karma and its effect on the individual beings. But in Jainism the karma is not a mere effect or result of ones actions, but a real substance that flows into each individual body or jiva as it indulges in various actions. This karmic substance which is a kind of fine matter or energy field, remains with it until it is got rid of through good conduct and self purification.

Though both Buddhism and Jainism originated and developed as distinct religions in the same geographical area comprising the present day Bihar and adjoining states, Buddhism crossed the frontiers of Indian subcontinent and went to far away lands like Nepal, China, far eastern countries, central Asia, Sri Lanka and Japan, while Jainism remained mostly confined to the land of its origin.

Strangely over a period of time, Buddhism disappeared from the Indian soil, despite of making several compromises with Hinduism, and having almost been absorbed into Hinduism as a sect, while Jainism survived in India, with its teachings intact, mostly untouched by the overwhelming philosophy and practices of Hinduism, at the same time imparting to the latter some of its noblest ideas.

The History of Jainism after Mahavira

For a century or so after the passing away of Mahavira, Jainism remained an insignificant sect with no great following worth speaking. With Buddhism on the ascendance and its increasing popularity among the lay folk, with many other rival sects such as the Ajivakas, the Lokayatas, the Samkhya Vadins competing vigorously and trying to outdo each other, Jainism remained in the back ground, with a small but highly committed following of its own.

As a religion it appealed to few and offered but little comfort to those who wanted to continue their old materialistic ways but at the same time dabble a little bit in religion so as to whet their spiritual appetite or allay their fears of retribution or falling into hells.

With its heavy emphasis on the cultivation of highest virtues, offering no compromises on the question of austerities and monastic discipline, Jainism could not make much head way especially in times when the middle path of the Buddha was becoming increasingly popular, offering the much needed spiritual comfort to the materialistically inclined and socially and financially well placed trading and ruling classes.

During this period, the sect survived because of the dedicated work of many spiritual leaders referred in the Jain texts as Gandharas. Because of their sustained efforts the sect seemed to have gained some recognition by the time the Mauryas came to power in the 4th century BC. Tradition states that their first king, the famous and legendary Chandragupta Maurya, became a Jain in the later part of his reign and died as a Jain monk. Bhadrabahu, a Jain monk of highest virtue, was instrumental in this conversion.

Foreseeing an impending famine of serious dimensions in northern India, Bhadrabahu seemed to have persuaded Chandragupta Maurya to accompany him to the south, where the monks could pursue their activities and also spread Jainism in the south. The king consented and they all traveled to a place now called Sravanabelagola in the south. Chandragupta Maurya ended his life there, in the true Jain tradition, fasting himself to death.

At the same time, when Bhadrabahu was in the south with his followers, a group of monks remained in the north, facing the famine, under the leadership of Sthulabhadra. He said to have diluted some of the teachings of Mahavira as compromise, in view of the distress and confusion caused by the severity of the famine.

When the group headed by Bhadrabahu finally returned to the north they were disillusioned at the changes that took place in the Order. A meeting was convened at Pataliputra to sort out the differences and preserve the teachings of Mahavira. But Bhadrabahu did not attend the meeting. He proceeded to Nepal, where he died in the true Jain tradition, fasting himself to death.

Jainism spread to south India during the post Mauryan period, mainly because of the dedicated work of the Jain monks who migrated to the south. Many south Indian kings became converted to Jainism and patronized the religion.

It also spread to the eastern coastal belt of India now comprising, parts of Andhrapradesh and Orissa. About 450 BC, a council was organized at Vallabhi under the leadership of Devarddhi, which recognized 84 works as the main canonical literature.

In the west, in Gujarat, Jainism became popular mostly during the medieval period when Kumarapala ascended the throne and ruled from Gujarat. The invasion of the Muslims from outside did effect Jainism also, especially in Gujarat and Rajasthan, but it survived because of the high degree of monastic discipline and the commitment of its monks to the life they had chosen.

Divisions in Jainism

We understand that Vardhamana decided to go naked a year after he became a monk and spent the rest of his life without wearing any clothes. The original Order of ascetic monks he established probably followed him and accepted nudity as a part of a monk's life.

When Mahavira was spreading his message, a group of monks who were already familiar with the teachings of Parsvanatha and the previous Thirthankaras might have also been existing at the same time. We are not sure whether they also joined the Order established by Mahavira, though there are some indications that some of them must have joined. However, they seemed to have retained some of the old practices, which were already prevalent, including the practice of wearing clothes.

In course of time the differences between the two groups should have widened, especially after the great famine that ravaged parts of north eastern India, resulting in the great schism, that divided the Order into two vertical divisions. One group called themselves as Digambaras, refusing to wear clothes and other group called themselves as Svetambaras, who accepted wearing white clothes as a part of their monastic discipline.

The Digambaras accepted nudity as a part of the teachings of Mahavira, which was in line with the argument that a perfect monk was supposed to be devoid of any possessions including clothes and the desire to protect his body in whatever form. They also held that women should never join the Order as they were not qualified for the austere life the Order demanded form each of the adherents.

The Digamabaras depict Mahavira in complete nudity, without any ornamentation, with downcast eyes. They also believe that Mahavira led a completely celibate life and never married. They refuse to recognize the eleven angas of the Jain canon, which form part of the 41 Sutras. The Svetambaras on the other hand accept the 11 angas, wear white robes, are not averse to admitting women into the Order and show Mahavira wearing white robes. `

In the 18th century, another schism took place, this time in the Svetambara sect, on account of the intrusion of some form of ritualism and temple worship. A Jain monk named Viraji, started this new movement, which denounced the worship of the images of the Thirthankaras and the construction of temples to house them. They became known as Sthanakavasis, signifying the fact that they assemble in ordinary unadorned buildings, called sthanakas instead of in elaborately constructed and well decorated temples and places of worship.

Today the divisions continue. The Digambara Jains are found mostly in the south, especially in the erstwhile Mysore state, the place where the group led by Bhadrabahu went some two thousand and three hundred years ago. The Svetambaras and the Sthanakavasis are found mostly in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

The followers of Jainism today come mostly from the trading communities of India and are known for their high degree of commitment to the teachings of Mahavira. Their way of life is characterized by fasting, non violence, vegetarianism, philanthropy, austerity, amiability and simplicity. They also play vital role in the religious, political and economic activities of India, without distancing themselves from the Hindus who form the majority and who in turn do not find any distinction between them and the Jains.

The Jain Canonical Literature

The Jain canonical literature was originally composed in Ardha-Magadhi, but later Sanskrit became its principal medium. There is a lot of variation as to what constitute the original Jain literature. And as we have seen in the history section, for several centuries even the monks themselves did not have a common agreement on this subject.

The whole literature came into its present format much after the passing away of Mahavira. The works therefore do not guarantee the purity of his teachings. However for our understanding, we are presenting below one such commonly known classification. (Ref. Indian Philosophy, Vol.1, by S.Radhakrishnan)

1. The Forty one sutras. It consists of eleven Angas, 12 Upangas, five Chedas, five Mulas, and eight miscellaneious works such as the Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu, the Nandisutra etc.

2. The Prakarnikas which are unclassified works.

3. The12 Niryuktis or commentaries.

4. One Mahabhashya or great commentary.

The non canonical literature

Those texts which do not form part of the above, but of great value to the students and followers of Jainism are included in this category. We are listing a few such works below for reader's convenience.

(Readers may note that for convenience sake we have divided the complex Sanskrit titles into individual words, but they have to be read together.)

The Svetambara Texts:

1. Tattva-artha-adhigama-sutra by Umapati (about 3rd century AD.)

2. Nyaya-avatara by Divakara Siddhasena (5th Century)

3. Saddarsana-samucchaya by Haribhadra (9th century)

4. Saddarsana-vichara by Merutunga (15th century)

The Digambara Texts:

1. Pancha-ashtikaya-sara by Kundakundacharya (50 BC)

2. Jaina-sloka-vartika by Vidyananda (8th century)

3. Atma-anusasana by Gunabhadra (9th century)

4. Tattva-artha-sara by Amitachandra (9th century)

5. Dravya-samgraha by Nemichandra (10th century)

6. Gommatasara

7. Labdhisara

8. Ksapanasara

9. Trilokasara

10. Syadavada-manjari by Mallisena (13th century)

11. Tattv-ardha-sara-dipika by Sakalakirti (15th century)

12. Pramana-naya-tattva-loka-alamkara

In addition, a lot of literature is available in Indian vernacular languages. The Jain monks created their own version of Jain Puranas on the line of the Hindu Puranas, which make an interesting reading, in addition to works of considerable importance in mathematics, politics, arts and science etc.